Quick note for learners: Participant markers can feel really confusing at first — it's normal. Many learners worry because the same short words (ih, doh, dih) seem to change meaning depending on verb type, word order, or whether we use names or pronouns. The good news: once you practise them in short dialogues and use them every day, the patterns become natural. Start with the simple core rules, practise a few quick two-line conversations, and gradually add the verb-class contrasts. Little, daily practice is far more effective than memorising all exceptions at once.
Goal: Teach learners a simple, reliable core system first (ih/doh/dih as definite/indefinite/agent-possession), then introduce an advanced module that shows how verb classes and voice patterns change marker roles.
Core system (start here)
These three markers are the base you must know before verb classes:
ih — definite/specific ("the specific one we know")
doh — indefinite/new ("a/some" - first mention)
dih — known person doing something OR possession with names
Foundation Rule: This core system works for most sentences. Intermediate learners will later discover that some verb types have special patterns, but master this foundation first.
Teach tip: Use a 2-sentence dialog with the same noun moving from doh → ih, and a third sentence introducing a named owner with dih.
Example progression:
Nokokito oku doh tasu — I saw a dog (first mention)
Nokito oku ih tasu — I saw the dog (now we both know which dog)
Ngaran ku nopo nga ih Mary — My name is Mary. (It behaves like a 'si' in Malay .. nama saya si Mary)
Kurita dih John — John's car (possession with name)
Real-world dialogue showing the progression:
A:"Nokokito oku doh tasu" (I saw a dog)
B:"Nombo ih tasu?" (Where is the dog?)
A:"Ih tasu id labus doh walai dih John" (The dog is outside John's house)
Notice how: First mention uses doh, then both speakers use ih because they now know which dog. The location shows possession with dih John.
💡 Success tip: Don't worry if you mix up ih/doh occasionally - even advanced learners do this! Focus on getting the meaning across first, then refine the markers with practice.
Intermediate module — Verb classes & voice
Some Dusun verbs belong to classes that affect how participant markers behave. Learn this after you are comfortable with the core system.
Verb Class 1 — Standard verbs (two-way voice)
Many common verbs (e.g., manandang 'kick', tinandang 'kicked', ginusa 'chased', momogusa 'chase') use a two-way voice. This lets the speaker highlight either the agent (who does it) or the patient (what/whom it happens to).
Agent focus (emphasize the doer):
Pattern: DIH (agent) + IH (patient)
Full noun: Tinandang dih John ih Mary → English: John kicked Mary.
With pronoun agent: Tinandang kuih Mary — I kicked Mary (here ku marks the agent pronoun in this example)
Patient focus (emphasize the receiver):
Pattern: IH (patient) + DOH/DIH (agent) — note: the agent slot may be filled by dih when the agent is a proper name, or doh when the agent is indefinite/unspecified
Full noun (named agent): Tinandang ih Mary dih John — Mary was kicked by John (focus on Mary as patient)
Full noun (indefinite agent): Tinandang ih Mary doh manok — Mary was kicked by a chicken (agent = some/unspecified chicken)
With pronoun: Manandang okudih tasu — I am kicking the dog (pronoun signals agent; marker placement shows focus)
Note: For Class 1, pay attention to (1) marker order, (2) whether the agent is a proper name vs a generic noun, and (3) the speaker's intended focus. Pronouns often simplify marking — the pronoun itself can signal agent/patient and reduce ambiguity.
Verb Class 2 — Causative verbs (fixed pattern)
Causative verbs (for example papaakan 'cause to eat / feed') tend to have a more fixed assignment of markers:
Pattern: IH = agent, DIH = patient (stable)
Papaakan ih John dih Mary — John feeds Mary (John = agent)
Pinapaakan ih John dih Mary — John fed Mary (John = agent)
Papaakan dih John ih Mary — marked form that shifts roles (agents/patients flip when markers flip; check naturalness with native speakers)
With pronoun agent: Papaakan okudih Mary — I feed Mary
Warning: Causatives can look similar to Class 1 alternations but are usually less flexible — the verb's lexical properties determine which patterns are permitted. Always confirm with a reliable verb list or a native speaker when in doubt.
Note: Common mistake: Beginners try to apply voice alternation rules to all verbs. Remind them that verb class determines which patterns are possible. Also show the difference between dih as a name-owner marker (possession) and dih as an agent marker in passives — context and verb class matter.
DOH vs DIH in the agent slot (clarification)
Short rule to avoid confusion:
If the agent is a named person or title, prefer dih (e.g., dih John).
If the agent is unspecified, generic, or indefinite, use doh (e.g., doh manok = "some chicken/a chicken").
When pronouns are used (e.g., oku, ku), the pronoun often carries the agent role and markers become optional or behave differently — include pronoun drills in Phase B.
How to determine which pattern applies
Check verb class (teacher's dictionary or verb list): Class 1 = two-way voice possible; Class 2 = fixed causative pattern.
Look at pronouns: pronoun agents (oku/ku/etc.) often disambiguate focus without extra markers.
Check marker order: in Class 1 a flip of ih/dih/doh typically signals voice shift.
Practical teaching sequence (recommended)
Phase A — Core markers: Teach doh (first mention), ih (definite), dih (name ownership/agent in passive). Lots of 2-line dialogs.
Phase B — Pronouns & possession: Show how pronouns replace named owners and how possessive pronouns follow nouns (e.g., manuk ku). Add short pronoun drills where learners replace named owners with pronouns.
Phase C — Verb class & voice (advanced): Introduce Class 1 two-way voice with controlled contrasts (same verb, swap markers → change focus). Use color-coded examples and translation back-and-forth.
Phase D — Practice: Short drills that ask learners to mark agent vs patient and to transform a sentence from agent focus → patient focus.
Teacher tip: Use three columns on the board: (1) Dusun form, (2) gloss/word-by-word, (3) natural English. Let students predict meaning before revealing the gloss. Color-code agent vs patient markers in classroom slides for clarity.
Compact examples (for classroom handout)
Dusun
Gloss
English
Tinandang dih John ih Mary
kick-PAST John-AGT Mary-PAT
John kicked Mary. (agent focus)
Tinandang ih Mary dih John
kick-PAST Mary-PAT John-AGT
Mary was kicked by John. (patient focus — named agent uses dih)
Tinandang ih Mary doh manok
kick-PAST Mary-PAT a-chicken
Mary was kicked by a chicken. (patient focus — indefinite agent uses doh)
Nokokito oku doh tasu
see-PAST I a-dog
I saw a dog. (first mention)
Nokito oku ih tasu
see-PAST I the-dog
I saw the dog. (definite)
Papaakan ih John dih Mary
feed-CAUS John-AGT Mary-PAT
John feeds Mary. (causative fixed pattern)
Papaakan dih John ih Mary
feed-CAUS John-PAT Mary-AGT
Marked form showing flipped roles — check with native speakers for acceptability.
Practice tasks
Convert this agent-focus sentence to patient-focus (same verb): Tinandang dih John ih Mary → produce the patient-focus equivalent and translate.
Convert these core-system sentences to show definite/indefinite alternation:
Nokito oku doh tasu → Nokito oku ih tasu (saw a dog → saw the dog)
Momoli yau doh sada → Momoli yau ih sada (buying a fish → buying the fish)
Identify whether the verb is Class 1 or Class 2 from a short teacher list and mark participants accordingly.