Verbs are the most essential — and most challenging — part of Dusun. A single root verb can produce more than 50 different forms through affixes alone. But don't be intimidated: every form follows a pattern, and once you recognise those patterns, the language starts to feel logical and even elegant.
This lesson covers everything from the basics of how verbs are positioned in a sentence, all the way to how verbs can be converted into adjectives or nouns — and vice versa.
The very first thing to understand about Dusun verbs is where they appear in a sentence. Dusun follows a Verb-Doer-Recipient (VDR) word order — similar to what linguists call VSO (Verb-Subject-Object). This is the opposite of English and Malay, which both use Subject-Verb-Object (SVO).
| Language | Word Order | Example |
|---|---|---|
| English | Subject → Verb → Object | I eat rice |
| Malay | Subject → Verb → Object | Saya makan nasi |
| Dusun | Verb → Doer → Recipient | Makan oku takano |
More examples of VDR in action:
Every Dusun verb begins with a root form — the bare base before any affixes are added. Root verbs are usually short, often just one or two syllables. All the richness and variety in Dusun verb forms comes from attaching things to this root.
| Root Verb | Basic Meaning | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| akan | eat | makan |
| inum | drink | minum |
| tangkus | run | lari |
| boli | buy | beli |
| gampot | reach / catch | sampai / tangkap |
| tulis | write | tulis |
| odop | sleep | tidur |
| irak | laugh | ketawa |
| tandang | kick | tendang |
Root verbs can sometimes be used on their own — in commands, very short answers, or informal speech. But in complete sentences, they almost always carry at least one affix to indicate tense, voice, or nuance.
The most common way to express an ongoing or present action in Dusun is the ma-/mo- prefix (and its nasal variant maN-, where N blends with the first letter of the root verb).
The choice between ma- and mo- depends on the root verb and is something learned through exposure — there is no single rule. The nasal form (maN-) causes the first consonant of the root to merge with the prefix:
| Root | Present Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|
| nulis | monulis | writing | menulis |
| tangkus | manangkus | running | berlari |
| onsok | mogonsok | cooking | memasak |
| panau | mamanau | walking | berjalan |
| boli | momoli | buying | membeli |
| tandang | manandang | kicking | menendang |
Dusun has more past tense forms than present or future tense forms. This richness may reflect the culture's tradition of storytelling and recounting events. Understanding past tense in Dusun requires knowing who the sentence is focused on — the doer or the receiver of the action.
When the sentence emphasises who did the action (active past), use minan-:
| Root | Past (doer-focus) | English |
|---|---|---|
| tandang | minanandang | (he/she) kicked |
| tangkus | minanangkus | (he/she) ran |
| tulis | minonulis | (he/she) wrote |
When the sentence emphasises what was done to something (passive past), insert the infix -in- after the first consonant of the root:
| Root | Past (receiver-focus) | English |
|---|---|---|
| tandang | tinandang | was kicked |
| boli | binoli | was bought |
| gampot | ginampot | was reached |
| inum | ninum | was drunk |
The noko-/naka- prefix expresses a completed past action, often carrying the sense of "managed to" or "had done":
| Root | Past Perfect | English |
|---|---|---|
| ponsu (swim) | nokoponsu | managed to swim / knew how to swim |
| gampot | nakagampot | managed to catch / reach |
| akan | nakaakan | had eaten / managed to eat |
Dusun has two main ways to express the future, each with a slightly different feel:
Use mongoi before the verb to express a planned or imminent future action. This is similar to "going to" in English or akan in Malay.
Adding the suffix -on or -an to a verb root expresses a future action with a stronger sense of intention or certainty:
| Root | Future Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|
| akan | akanon | will eat | akan dimakan |
| igit | igitan | will hold | akan dipegang |
| boli | bolion | will buy | akan dibeli |
| inum | inumon | will drink | akan diminum |
Beyond tense, Dusun verbs carry a wide range of prefixes that change the meaning in other ways:
The prefix si- expresses that the subject wants or feels like doing something:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| siakan | want to eat | mahu makan |
| sitangkus | want to run | mahu berlari |
| siirak | feel like laughing | mahu ketawa |
| siboli | want to buy | mahu beli |
| siodop | sleepy (want to sleep) | mengantuk |
ka-/ko- expresses the ability or possibility to do something. It is actually a shortform of kadapat mo-/ma- ("able to...") — native speakers naturally contract this into a single prefix rather than saying the full form:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| kagampot | can reach / able to catch | boleh sampai / tangkap |
| kokito | can see | boleh nampak |
| koinum | can drink | boleh minum |
| koakan | can eat | boleh makan |
papa-/popo- means to cause or make someone do something — similar to "to have someone do" in English:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| papaakan | to feed (make eat) | menyuap / bagi makan |
| popotungag | to wake someone up | kejutkan |
| papatahak | to give / cause to have | memberi |
| popoilo | to inform | memberitahu |
The prefix miN- (where N is a nasal that blends with the root) combined with partial reduplication expresses casual, repeated, or leisurely action — similar to the Malay ber-...an or doubled verbs like jalan-jalan:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| mintangkus | running around (leisurely) | berlarian |
| mimbuul | playing ball (casually) | main-main bola |
| mimpanau | strolling around | berjalan-jalan |
| mingirak | laughing away | ketawa-ketawa |
sang-/song- combined with reduplication expresses action happening all over or in a scattered, uncontrolled way:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| songihad-ihad | crying all over the place | menangis merata |
| sangtangkus-tangkus | running all around | berlari merata |
The prefix mi- expresses that two or more parties are doing something to each other — a mutual action:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| mitumbuk | hitting each other | pukul-memukul |
| misingud | kissing each other | berciuman |
The prefix ki- turns a noun into a verb meaning "to have" that thing. It functions like saying "has a [noun]":
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| kisawo | has a spouse | ada pasangan |
| kitanak | has a child | ada anak |
moki-/minoki- expresses asking or requesting someone else to perform an action. Moki- is the present form; minoki- is the past form:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| mokigusa | asking (someone) to chase | minta orang kejar |
| minokigusa | asked (someone) to chase | minta orang kejar (lepas) |
obin-/obing- describes someone who habitually or characteristically does something — a personality trait or a repeated behaviour. Think of it as "one who always...":
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| obingihad | a crybaby / one who always cries | tukang nangis |
| obintangkus | one who always runs (away) | tukang lari |
| obingakan | a glutton / one who always eats | tukang makan |
When noko-/naka- is attached to an adjective rather than a verb, it expresses that something became that quality — a completed change of state:
| Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|
| nokolombon | became fat | jadi gemuk |
| nokoriho | became rich | jadi kaya |
| nakaagayo | became big / grew big | jadi besar |
Dusun has a special form called the inchoative — it expresses that something is in the process of becoming a quality, gradually changing into a state. It is formed by inserting -um- after the first consonant of the adjective root, or using m- if the root starts with a vowel:
| Adjective Root | Inchoative Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|
| aragang (red) | rumagang | turning red / reddening | menjadi merah |
| osogit (difficult) | sumogit | getting harder | makin susah |
| oitom (black) | mitom | turning black / darkening | menjadi hitam |
| oundar (long) | mundar | growing longer | makin panjang |
Commands in Dusun are formed in a few different ways depending on tone and politeness:
The root verb alone can function as a direct command, especially in informal or urgent speech:
Adding -o softens the command into a polite invitation or suggestion:
| Root | Softened Command | English |
|---|---|---|
| akan | akano | Please eat / Go ahead and eat |
| inum | inumo | Please drink / Help yourself |
| sonsod | sonsodo | Please look / Look at it! |
Use kada before the verb root to form a negative command (don't):
Dusun has four different negation words, each used in a different situation. Using the wrong one is a common learner mistake, so it's worth understanding each one clearly.
amu is the most common negation word. Use it to say that an action is not happening or a quality does not apply:
| Positive | Negative | English |
|---|---|---|
| Makan oku takano. | Amu oku makan takano. | I eat rice → I don't eat rice |
| Monulis ilo tanak. | Amu monulis ilo tanak. | The child is writing → The child is not writing |
okon is used specifically to negate identity or role — when something is not a certain thing. Think of it like bukan in Malay:
aiso means "there is no" or "I have no" — used when something simply does not exist or is absent. It can be combined with poh (yet) or noh (anymore):
| Dusun | Malay | English |
|---|---|---|
| Aiso tusin ku. | Saya tiada duit. | I have no money. |
| Aiso poh tusin ku. | Saya belum ada duit lagi. | I don't have money yet. |
| Aiso noh tusin ku. | Saya sudah tiada duit. | I have no more money. |
kada is used only for commands — telling someone not to do something. It is covered in Section 7c above.
One of the most powerful features of Dusun morphology is the ability to convert words between categories using affixes. A verb can become an adjective or a noun, and a noun can become a verb.
Adding a- or o- to a verb root creates an adjective meaning "able to be [verb]ed" — similar to English -able or Malay boleh di-:
| Verb Root | Adjective Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|
| inum (drink) | oinum | drinkable | boleh diminum |
| takad (climb) | atakad | climbable | boleh didaki |
| akan (eat) | aakan | edible | boleh dimakan |
Dusun can convert verbs into nouns in several ways:
Suffix -an — creates a noun referring to a place, instrument, or result of the action:
| Verb | Noun Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|
| akan (eat) | taakanan | eating place | tempat makan |
| odop (sleep) | todopon | sleeping place / bedroom | tempat tidur |
| irakau (sit) | tirikohon | seat / place to sit | tempat duduk |
| uhot (ask) | poguhatan | question | soalan |
Prefix pong-/pom- — creates an agent noun (person or tool that does the action):
| Verb | Noun Form | English | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|
| tulis (write) | ponulis | writer / pen | penulis / pen |
| gampot (catch) | pamagampot | catcher | penangkap |
The causative prefix papa-/popo- can also convert adjectives or nouns into verbs meaning "to make [something] become [adjective]":
| Adjective/Noun | Meaning | Verb Form | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| agayo | big | papagayo | to enlarge / make bigger |
| anaru | long | papanaru | to lengthen / make longer |
| olombon | fat | popolombon | to fatten |
Now you can see why verbs are the most complex part of Dusun. A single root like tangkus (run) can produce dozens of different forms:
| Form | Meaning |
|---|---|
| tangkus | run (root / command) |
| manangkus | running (present) |
| minanangkus | ran (past, doer-focus) |
| tinangkus | was made to run (past, receiver-focus) |
| mongoi tangkus | going to run |
| sitangkus | want to run |
| katangkus | can run |
| papatangkus | to make (someone) run |
| mintangkus | running around casually |
| sangtangkus-tangkus | running all over the place |
| mitangkus | running / chasing each other |
| obintangkus | one who always runs away |
| ponongkusan | a place for running / race track |
| atangkus | runnable / able to be run on |
The best way to internalise these patterns is through exposure. Use the Dictionary to explore how verbs appear in real sentences, take the Quizzes to test yourself, and don't be afraid to make mistakes — they're how the patterns stick.
| Affix | Function | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| ma-/mo-/maN- | Present / active | manangkus, mogonsok | running, cooking |
| minan- | Past (doer-focus) | minanandang | kicked |
| -in- (infix) | Past (receiver-focus / passive) | tinandang, binoli | was kicked, was bought |
| noko-/naka- | Past perfect / completed | nokoponsu, nakagampot | managed to swim, managed to catch |
| mongoi + | Future (going to) | mongoi oku akan | I'm going to eat |
| -on/-an | Future (emphatic) | akanon, igitan | will eat, will hold |
| si- | Desire / want to | siakan, siodop | want to eat, sleepy |
| ka-/ko- | Ability / can | kagampot, kokito | can reach, can see |
| papa-/popo- | Causative (make someone do) | papaakan, popoilo | feed, inform |
| miN- | Frequentative / casual repeated | mintangkus, mimpanau | running around, strolling |
| sang-/song- + reduplication | Scattered / uncontrolled | sangtangkus-tangkus | running all over |
| mi- | Reciprocal (each other) | mitumbuk, misingud | hitting / kissing each other |
| ki- | Possession as verb (has a…) | kisawo, kitanak | has a spouse, has a child |
| moki-/minoki- | Requesting action | minokigusa oku diya | I asked you to chase |
| obin-/obing- | Habitual / personality trait | obingihad, obintangkus | crybaby, one who always runs |
| noko-/naka- + adj | Became (change of state) | nokolombon | became fat |
| -um-/m- (inchoative) | Becoming / turning into | rumagang, mitom | turning red, darkening |
| a-/o- | Adjectival (able to be…) | oinum, atakad | drinkable, climbable |
| -o (suffix) | Softened command | akano, inumo | please eat, please drink |
| kada + | Negative command (don't) | kada tangkus | don't run |
| amu + | General negation (not doing) | amu oku makan | I don't eat |
| okon | Identity negation (is not) | okon oku guru | I am not a teacher |
| aiso | Existential negation (there is none) | aiso tusin ku | I have no money |